Unit:02
System Analysis
What is a system?
The dictionary meaning
of the word 'System' is, a group of things or parts working together as a
whole.
A system is a
collection of elements or components that are organized for a common purpose.
The word sometimes describes the organization or plans itself.
Semprevivo (1982)
defines a system as "a series of interrelated elements that perform some
business activity, business function, or business operation.”
They are interrelated
and interdependent. Any grouping of elements in a system that includes some but
not necessarily all of the elements is called a subsystem.
In short, a system is
an organization that can be reduced to its component parts on the basis of
their functions.
Each functional
component part is then a subsystem, which in turn can be reduced to its own
component parts.
A system can be
described in terms of inputs, process, outputs and the various controls
operating on it, as suggested by Brophy, 1986.
Types of System
Murdick and Ross (1975)
have identified different types of systems:
1. Conceptual Systems -
These systems are basically concerned with theoretical structures as in General
Theory of Relativity, Economic Theory etc.
2. Empirical systems -These
systems in contrast to the conceptual systems are concrete operational systems
made up of people, materials, machines and other such components.
3. Natural Systems -
An example of such a system is an ecosystem or `the entire ecology of life’.
4. Man-made Systems -Example
of such a system is the manufacturing system of a company.
5. Social Systems -
These systems are made up of people and comprise interpersonal and inter group
relationships.
6. Man-machine Systems -
These systems exist in business and industry.
7. Pure Machine Systems -
These systems are rare. Example could be a self sufficient system like an electrical
power generating system, with self-repairing capabilities.
8. Open system -
This system freely interacts with its environment.
9. Closed system -This
system does not interact with its environment.
10. Stationary systems -
These are systems whose properties and operations do not vary with time.
An example of such a system would be a manufacturing unit
producing the similar items.
- Non-Stationary systems -These
systems vary with time. An example of this system is a R&D department
or any other system that keeps evolving or changing with time.
- Reactive systems -
These systems interact with their environment in order to improve their
functioning and thus keep evolving.
- Non-adaptive systems -
These systems do not change with respect of the environmental factors.
In a typical library
and information system, for example, all major activities such as acquisitions,
serials control, information storage and retrieval, user services and
administration and planning are a set of elements, which are interdependent
because of the common purpose they intend to serve.
Providing library and
information service is the common purpose that binds or unites them into a set
or system.
All major activities of
this system from acquisition to management are thus, its subsystems
Library as a System
Library can be
identified as a complex system.
Seven basic subsystems
that make up the library system, as identified by Hays and Becker, are
acquisitions, serials control, circulation control, cataloguing, inter-library loans, reference and administration and planning.
Chapman and others list all these except
inter-library loans, which understandably can form part of either circulation
control or reference subsystem.
These can be restated
as acquisitions, serials control, information storage and retrieval, user
services and administration and planning.
This common purpose
binds all these component parts into an integrated whole. They are interrelated
functionally and, therefore, are interdependent.
For example, a change
in the functioning of the acquisitions subsystem can affect the effectiveness
of the user services subsystem.
Similarly, a change in
the functionality of information storage and retrieval subsystem can also
effect the effectiveness of user services subsystem and that of the system as a
whole.
The above illustration
is a presentation of well-defined functional interrelationships among the
component parts of the library and information system. Because of these
functional interrelationships the system is capable of achieving its objective.
When a library is
viewed as an integrated system the interdepartmental boundaries appear
superficial and fade away.
It can also be seen as
an information storage and retrieval system. The inputs are the documents
(journal, books, reports etc.) and expressions of the needs of users seeking
information.
The collection in the
stacks, vertical files, and catalogues, for example, is clearly storage. The processing
is the analysis, representation, and organization of requests and retrieval of
appropriate information from the collection in response to these requests.
Moreover, library is a
dynamic organization with all its complex interactions and discontinuities.
"Changing one policy can produce anticipated changes in apparently
unconnected areas of service" (Brophy, 1986).
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Harold Borko (as quoted
by Werner Kunz and others) defines the term systems analysis as `a formal
procedure for examining a complex process or organization, reducing it to its
component parts, and relating these parts to each other and to the unit as a
whole in accordance with an agreed upon performance criterion‘
(Methods of analysis and evaluation of
information needs'. Verlag Documentation, 1976). Following this definition,
library as a system can be reduced to its component parts and these parts can
be related to each other and to the system as a whole according to an agreed
upon performance criterion. In the case of the library and information system,
increased effectiveness can easily be such a performance criterion.
Such an exercise, then,
will be a library systems analysis.
Steps in Systems
Analysis
The process of System
Analysis can be considered from two angles:
One is from the point
of view of problem solving and the other from the point of view of development
of new systems.
From the point of view
of problem solving the following six basic steps are carried out:
- Definition and formulation of the
problem;
- Development of alternative
solutions;
- Construction of models which
formalize the alternatives;
- Determination of the
cost/effectiveness of the alternatives;
- Presentation of recommendations;
and
- Implementation of the chosen
alternatives.
The application of
systems analysis to the development of system generally takes greater time
period than in the case of problem solving.
The activities
performed during the development of a system can be identified in three phases:
a) System
Analysis
b) System
Design
c) System
Implementation.
The activities
performed in these three phases are almost parallel to the six steps of problem
solving as shown in Table 5.1.
A `Systems life Cycle'
depicted in Figure 5.5 indicates the three phases of an Information System
Development in relation to the major activities of each phase.
Generally, the
application of the phases in the life cycle is a highly interactive ongoing
operation, which is usually accomplished at the subsystem level and continues till
the total system is modified and eventually supplemented.
The functioning of a subsystem on the other
hand is a very complex process and it varies from subsystem to subsystem.
Take, for example, the
acquisitions subsystem and we find that it consists of the following
operations:
3 and 4 where 3 will be
a decision followed by the action on it. The process of system analysis is
usually represented graphically as follows
The above flow chart
does not fail to show the relationship between acquisition and cataloguing
subsystems. It also depicts a full analysis of the receiving and checking
operation. Likewise, it is possible to analyze the operations of search and
accounting
Each operation in a
subsystem can thus be analyzed.
While designing a new
system the existing system is analyzed into its subsystems and each subsystem
into its operations, and, in turn, each operation into the functions, decisions
and actions involved in it.
It is only through such
an analysis that it is possible to relate all operations to each other and to
the respective subsystem and all subsystems to each other and to the total
system.
Flow Charting
Flow charting is the
technique of representing, in a logical progression the functions, decisions
and actions involved in the operation of a system.
Standardized symbols
are used in drawing flow charts.
A flow chart can show
the sequence of steps in an operation and, therefore, as Chapman and others
call it, it is the symbolism of the systems analyst.
Flow charts can
symbolically represent what is otherwise very difficult to describe. Take, for
example, the case of borrowing a book from the library.
Both the user and the
assistant at the counter do much more to complete the transaction that they can
describe.
With the help of a flow
chart it is easy to identify the functions, decisions and actions involved in
the process.
Additionally, a flow
chart can show where the system has developed and needs new procedures
Since, the flow chart
is the symbolism of the systems analyst; standardized symbols are used in
preparing it in order that it may be understood universally. The following are
the symbols used in
A number of rules exits
as guidelines for preparing flow charts. Some of the important ones are as
follows:
− The above symbols
form the universal language of flow charting and should be necessarily used,
− All the flow charts,
irrespective of what they represent, should have terminals indicating start and
halt;
− The graphic flow
should be always in one direction, either top to bottom or left to right;
− All decision diamonds
should have `yes' and `no' lines.
Flow charts are thus
very useful for representing in a logical progression all elements in a system,
sub-system or any of its operations.
Because of their
symbolism they are universally understood and used.
As far as the
librarians are concerned, flow charts enable them to identify functions,
decisions and actions which they perform in the course of their work but find
it difficult to describe.
Evaluation
After the completion of
analysis the analysts prepares the evaluation report which helps in designing a
new system.
Chapman and others have
given an exhaustive list of points that a report must cover. They are:
− Front matter: table of contents etc.,
− Body: introduction,
problem, objectives, scope and outcome;
− Methodology:
planning, personnel, equipment and procedure;
− Results: data, their
interpretation and analysis;
− Conclusions,
recommendations and implications;
− Back matter:
appendices etc.,
SYSTEMS DESIGN
Briefly, systems design
is what a systems analysis is undertaken for.
The analysis phase is
the starting point and the design phase is the conclusion of the total exercise
of systems analysis and design.
The existing system is
analyzed in order to design an alternative which is thought to be more
efficient, more productive and more rewarding.
The design phase, thus,
uses the data collected in the analysis phase. What is determined in the
analysis phase is validated in the design phase. It is advisable to first
discuss the general considerations in systems design.
General Considerations
The changes suggested
in the evaluation report are in fact the corrective measures that ought to be
adopted. These measures are adopted in the light of three considerations,
namely goals, cost factor and unit cost.
Let us now discuss them
one by one.
Goals: The
goals and objectives of the system have to be reviewed with reference to new
and augmented (વધારાની)
requirements.
Appropriate modifications in either or both are made in order that, the
projected system may achieve the desired goals.
Cost factor:
Establishing a new system may mean a large capital outlay (મૂડી ખર્ચ)
and
increased incurring expenditure. For example, the computer and the peripherals,
stationery and the personnel demand non recurrent as well as recurrent
financial support. The cost factor is, thus, very significant. The economic
feasibility of the projected system has to be studied. Such a study will enable
the management to take the decision about establishing the alternative system,
either as desired or as possible.
Unit cost: The
estimated unit cost of each output from the projected new system is compared
with the existing unit cost. If the new system can cut costs considerably, its
establishment is imply justified. For example, the cost of cataloguing a book
in American libraries came down to $1.5 from $15 after the establishment of
OCLC network. More and more American libraries were tempted to participate in
the network. This is the parameter of unit cost that is of great importance in
design making.
Design
If the analysis phase
results in the determination of requirements, the design phase is concerned
with the validation of these requirements to meet the system's revised goals,
with the revision of goals there is revision of outputs and consequently of
inputs.
Thus, the difference
between the analysis and the design is of approach only. In the design phase,
new procedures are worked out to meet the- projected requirements.
The elements of the
system remain unchanged.
The subsystem and the
operations are these elements.
Basically the design
phase consists of the following four steps.
The First Step
In this, all functions are re-planned so that they may be correlated.
The re-planning helps
to eliminate duplication of records and ensure a logical sequence of all
activities to be performed.
Because of the
interdependence among workers the authority of the heads of subsystem is
defined in order to increase the operational effectiveness of the total system.
New worksheets in place
of old ones are prepared. The new work sheets state - new requirements and
modified outputs to meet them.
The Second Step
As the second step of designing all procedures conceived are reduced to
writing.
They are described in
detail in a logical sequence and supported by flow charts.
This is done for each operation.
The description and flow charts together comprise the procedural manual.
The manual covers all
activities and illustrates the flow of work
The Third Step
This step is devoted to designing appropriate manual procedures.
Manual procedures exist
and are indispensable even in a highly computerized library system.
Information has to be
gathered and transformed as input. Even outputs have to be processed manually.
Good manual procedures,
when described fully, are very helpful in transforming the system from manual
to automate.
At this stage it is
also necessary to ensure the appropriateness of procedures.
The Fourth Step
This step consists in designing the printed forms.
These are used in
transmitting information and storing and avoiding its repetitive transcription.
The design of forms is,
therefore, guided by requirements and decisions.
The forms should be so
designed as to allow the recording of information item by item in the logical
order of elements.
A single form as far as
possible should serve several purposes, e.g., a book order form can be at the
same time used as: (a) on-order record, (b) process slip and (c) notification
to the requester.
The form should provide
for checking of boxes and should keep writing to the minimum and should be of
standard size to facilitate filling.
Wherever economical,
commercially available forms can be adopted, if they meet the data needs of the
system.
Lastly, the form should
be redesigned if necessary. If the forms are prepared observing the above
principles, they will serve the purpose well.
The most important
principle here is that the same data required at various points in the system
should be recorded at one time only.
A new system is thus
designed on the basis of the evaluation report brought out at the end of the
analysis phase.
What is determined in
the analysis is validated in the design. If necessary; either the goals or
functions or both are revised in the light of the objectives and requirements.
Procedures are then
drawn setting all operations and all steps in each operation in the logical
order.
The cost factor is
taken into account, economic feasibility is studied and the design is completed
step by step.
Systems analysis and
design, thus, is a two-phase exercise.
Assignments
Q.1. Discuss in brief
the system theory, concept, analysis, design & evaluation.
Q.2. What is “System”?
Explain the types of System and discuss system analysis.
Q.3. Explain Library as
a system and narrate system design for libraries
Greate Article Dear
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